Hawk Roosting (Ted Hughes)

 

About the Author:

Ted Hughes is consistently described as one of the twentieth century’s greatest English poets. Born August 17th, 1930 in Yorkshire, his family moved to Mexborough when he was seven to run a newspaper and tobacco shop. He attended Mexborough grammar school, and wrote his first poems from the age of fifteen, some of which made their way into the school magazine. Before beginning English studies at Cambridge University (having won a scholarship in 1948), he spent much of his National service time reading and rereading all of Shakespeare. At Cambridge, he 'spent most time reading folklore and Yeat's poems,' and switched from English to Archaeology and Anthropology in his third year.

Introduction:

The poem, “Hawk Roosting” is in the form of a monologue. Through the rapacious hawk, the poet talks about the megalomaniac leaders and power-mongers of our time who ruthlessly destroy fellow human beings in order to maintain their superiority.

The hawk’s closed eyes:

The poem opens and closes with the personal pronoun “I” which is an unmistakable sign of the speaker’s lust for power and self-projection. The hawk is perching on the topmost branch of the tallest tree in the forest. Its eyes are closed, which is probably an indication of the bird’s self-conceit and self-importance. The hawk deliberately refuses to recognize others. The bird’s inaction does not mean that it loves idleness. It reality, the bird, with its eyes closed, is rehearsing and planning how to kill and eat without any trouble.

Nature nurtures the hawk:

It appears that nature collaborates with the hawk. The existence of tall tree on which to perch, the lightness of air, which enables the hawk to fly without much effort, the sun’s rays which falls on the bird and also on the earth – all these natural phenomena are advantageous to the hawk. In addition to all these things, the open surface of the earth provides the hawk a full view of its prey.

The bird’s body:

The bird proudly states that its body is designed in such a way as to enable to pursue its predatory course easily. It is not likely to fall, for its feet are hooked in order to catch the top branches of the tree firmly.  The hawk says that based on the evolutionary theory, it is the highest order in bird’s family. It also says that it may not allow other birds to evolve than it. This is the tall claim that a dictator makes, as he carefully destroys potential rivals not to aspire to his position.

Hawk- a killer bird:

The bird says that it flies up or revolves according to its own whim and fancy. It states proudly that all belongs to it and so it can choose its own time and manner of killing. It does not resort to any sophisticated arguments to justify its destructive acts. Again like a dictator, it says that its business is to “tear off heads” and “the bones of the living”. This in its innate character and it cannot be changed by any force. It thinks that being conditioned by nature it has the ‘right’ to kill and that it need not put forward any arguments in self-defence. It is doing what it is made by nature to do.

The hawk and the dictator:

The hawk says that the sun is behind it. This means literally that the sun is setting. But his could also mean that the hawk rules over natural phenomena  such as such. It also says that the sun may be erratic but is never changes its destructive character of killing prey. Being a killer its eyes are always alert and its action is also swift but careful. This exactly reflects the attitudes of a dictator. To maintain the status, like a hawk, the dictator kills others without nay mercy thinking that nature has provided him with such power. The hawk does not indulge in self-explanation of its killing nature. Like this the dictator also does not feel sorry about any ill-deed that he does to others. The only thing that the hawk and the dictator want is to retain their power in-tact.

Conclusion:

The poet by comparing hawk and dictator, has brought out the philosophy of modern life. The hawk is a natural phenomenon. But a man turned into a dictator when his greediness reaches to pinnacle. He loses his human nature and turns into cruel bird like the hawk which basic duty is killing and eating. The poem states that there will be always ‘a killer and the killed’. Things like this will exist for ever.

The French Revolution

 

Introduction:

The French Revolution that began in 1789 altered the political landscape of feudal Europe irrevocably. Centuries of oppression came to an end, bringing about great changes in the social and political framework of France. This revolution, which lasted from 1789 to 1799, affected the rest of Europe also. People everywhere were inspired with democratic ideals, and the power of the king and the aristocrats came crumbling down. Nowhere in Europe could royalty and nobility even again take their power for granted after the uprising of the peasants in France.

Causes for the French Revolution:

The changes in the social, economic, political, and intellectual domains were causes for the French Revolution. The aristocratic structure of society before the revolution consisted of three orders or ‘estates’ : the clergy constituted the First Estate; the nobility, the Second Estate and the rest of the population which was more than ninety-five percent belonged to the Third Estate. The nobles represented the wealthy class, the bourgeoisie stood for the intelligent section such as doctors and merchants  and the lowest of the social position was occupied by peasants. While the first two Estates enjoyed privileges such as exempted from paying tax, the Third Estate suffered untold misery and poverty, for they needed to pay taxes to the State, the Church and the nobles. . The Old Order was thus based on privilege, despotism and exploitation.

The court of Louis XVI was known for its extravagance and pomp. The king believed in the divine right theory and ruled in an arbitrary manner. The people had not share in the government and the States-General had not met since 1614. Queen Marie Antoniette was unpopular  and arrogant and irritated the already frustrated people further. There was confusion in very department of administration. There was an urgent need for reform and the king was incapable of it.

Course of the French Revolution:

French writers like Voltaire and Rousseau has a profound effect on the middle class. Voltaire pointed an accusing finger on several lapses in French law which doled out harsh punishment for small offences. His writings helped to awake public conscience in France. In his famous book, “The Social Contract”, Rousseau explained that the king governed a state owing to a contract with his subjects. He established the fact that the people had every right to question the ruler if he failed in his duty towards them. This reasoning inspired many thinkers of the day and they joined the revolution. Motivated by Rousseau they were ready to destroy the old system of government altogether.

The American War of Independence was an inspiration to the French people. The way in which the American rose against the unfair taxation of the British government, and their ultimate triumph, acted as a great stimulus to the oppressed people of France.

All these brought matters to a boiling point, and with the attack on the state prison, the Bastille in 1789, the French Revolution began. The Old Order was overthrown. The French drew up a declaration called the “Declaration of the Rights of Man.” The concept of absolute monarch was rejected. Louis XVI was not happy about these developments and he sought foreign help. This enraged the mob further and it resulted in the horrifying September Massacres.   Thousands of royalties, priests, and nobles were killed on the streets. From 1794 to 1794, there was a Reign of Terror. Louis XVI was beheaded. In the name of ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’ more than  a million people were cruelly butchered. The revolution came to an end in 1799.

Effects of the French Revolution:

The first events of the revolution were well received in England. Many progressive Englishmen were happy to see France emerging from the shadow of absolute monarchy. The government of England was happy to see the weakening of France due to the internal strife. This was the initial reaction in England. But as the revolution took a bloody side with the September Massacres and the Reign of Terror, English opinion altered. The upper classes were alarmed to note the passing of power from the monarch to the lower classes in France. At first they were disgusted by the sadism of the peasants and later this disgust gave way to fear and panic. They feared that a similar situation could be created in England. Burke’s “Reflections on the Revolution in France” sounded a note of terror. In it, he upheld the authority of the ancient institution and claimed that the revolution was a disaster. He also pointed out that if it was not controlled, it would spread all over Europe and ruin its fine civilization. His opinion really changed the minds of the English.  A reply to Burke was made by Tom Paine in his “Rights of Man.” In it he supported the American and French revolutions. He said that people had the right to alter any existing government if they were not satisfied with it. The majority of the people however shared Burkes’ anxiety about the future of Europe.

 

Rise of Napoleon:

Meanwhile Austria and Prussia fought against France but they were defeated by the French. This victory gave the French to spread its power throughout the European continent. They promised assistance to any nation that sought to overthrow its ruler. Reluctantly, England entered into a war with France in 1793. A kind of an emergency situation was created in England. The king and the nobles were panic-stricken and even the mildest suggestion of reform was frowned upon. Outspoken proponents of reform were suspected of being ‘Jacobins.’ (Jacobins were entirely hostile to aristocratic privileges and to all feudal forms of government.)

One famous Jacobin was Napoleon Bonaparte, who wished to make France a democratic republic. After the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793, a group of Jacobins led by Maximilien Robespierre gained control of the French government, when some of the French cities revolted against Robespierre, they were supported by Britain. Napoleon was sent to command the army at Toulon. Napoleon succeeded in driving the British-aided rebels back and gained control over Toulon. Unfortunately, for Napoleon his rapid rise of success suffered a setback with the fall and execution of Robespierre in 1794. He regained his power the following year when he defended the royal palace, the Tuileries, from attack by angry mobs who wanted to destroy the ruling National Conventions that was being held there. He was hailed as a hero and made a major general.

Between 1792 and 1795, France has been at war with several states of Europe. Under the leadership of Napoleon, France defeated Austria in 1797. After several years of civil disturbance, the French longed for peace and welcomed the leadership of Napoleon who controlled the French government in 1799. He no ruled France as a dictator. Several people who held democratic opinions were arrested. The press had no freedom and people should not form club or societies.

Napoleon was not satisfied with ruling France alone. He wanted to conquer the neighbouring countries. He was crowned emperor in 1802 and he began his attacks on Europe by 1905. He defeated Prussia, several German states, Naples, Holland, Warsaw and Tuscany. Britain was forced to enter the war in order to curb the rising power of Napoleon. The war came to an end after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 when Lord Wellington defeated Napoleon.

Effects of French Revolution in the Lives of the English:

These Napoleonic war affected British life in several ways. England had borrowed heavily to meet the expenses of the war. The first problem therefore was the huge national debt. As a result taxes were raised, food became scarce, and there was inflation all around. After the war came to an end, nearly half a million soldiers and sailors were sent home. They added heavily to the long list of the unemployment. Unemployment became a serious problem for the authorities.

The import of corn was stopped during the twenty years of the war. Soon after the war, this ban was removed and European corn flooded the market. The price of English corn therefore had to be reduced drastically. This was resented by English farmers and to protect them the Corn Law was passed in 1816. The Corn Law hit the poor people for they had to pay more for the corn. The poor started revolting against and so the first Reform Bill was passed. Napoleon Wars gave England an excellent opportunity to revel its real army strength on land and sea to the world. England emerged from these wars as a superpower.

 

The French Revolution stirred the British people and affected their literature in a major way. There was a complete break with the Age of Reason and a new kind of literature known as the Romantic Revival was born. The chief characteristics of the poetry of this period were closeness to nature, simplicity of style, and the employment of the language of the common man. Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, and Keats were the poets who specialized in this style of poetry.

The Death of the Author (Roland Barthes)

 

Introduction:

Roland Barthes, one of the most influential and brilliant critics in the twentieth century, was a staunch advocate of semiology and structuralism. His famous treatise “The Elements of Semiology” (1964) and famous essay, “Introduction to the Structural Analysis of the Narrative” made memorable contribution to the evolution of semiology and structuralism which were initiated by Ferdinand de Saussure. In the beginning he wanted to ‘found a science of literary criticism.’ Later, under the influence of Derrida and Lacan his interest shifted from the general rules and constraints of narrative to the production of meaning in the process of reading.

Critical analysis:

In his famous essay, “The Death of the Author” Barthes asserted that “the birth of the reader must be at the cost of the death of the author.” In his most important work of literary criticism S/Z (1970) he comments exhaustively on Balzac’s famous story “Sarrasine”. His method of analysis provides an insight into structuralist  narratology. In the “textual Analysis of a Tale” (1973) by Edgar Allan Poe, he breaks down the text in lexias or small units of sense. Barthes aimed at showing how each small unit carries “many different meanings simultaneously or in different codes.”

Barthes proposes that structuralism is capable of an explanation of any sign system of any culture. He also perceives that such an explanation necessities a theology of meaning or explanation. This gives rise to the idea of ‘meta language’ which implies beyond language or second order language. Each order of language implicitly relies on a meta-language by which it is explained. Meta-language means “the language and terminology used to talk analytical about language itself.” In the course of interpreting one another the metalanguages will suffer ‘aporia’ or indefinite regression and thus, will vanish ultimately. He defends structuralism.

In “The Death of the Author” Barthes points out that the reader must cultivate an independent concept of the text and must completely dissociate himself from the author. When the writing begins, “the author enters into his own death.” In the capitalist ideology great importance has been attached to the “persona of the author.” The author still occupies a dominant place in histories of literature, biographies, magazine and interviews. Men of beliefs have been anxious to establish close relationship between authors and their works through diaries letters and memoirs. Literature is tyrannically author centred. An author’s life, readings, tastes, passions etc. are supposed to influence his writings. But “criticism consists for the most part in saying that Baudelaire’s work is the failure of Baudelaire, the man, Van Gogh’s his madness, Tchaikovsky’s his vice.” Barthes disagrees with the established view that “a work is always sought in the man or woman who produced it…”

 Barthes's essential argument is that the author has no sovereignty over his own words (or images, sounds, etc.) that belong to the reader who interprets them. When we encounter a literary text, says Barthes, we need not ask ourselves what the author intended in his words but what the words themselves actually say. Text employ symbols which are deciphered by readers, and since function of the text is to be read, the author and process of writing is irrelevant.

 "The death of the author" notion means that meaning is not something retrieved or discovered, having been there all the while, but rather something spontaneously generated in the process of reading a text, which is an active rather than passive action. Barthes does not intend to suggest that the death of the author lets any reader read any text any way he or she like (though others aside from Barthes perused this line of thought). What Barthes is suggesting is that reading always involves at least a little bit of writing or rewriting of the text's meaning.

 Barthes's "The Death of the Author" is an attack on traditional literary criticism that focused too much on trying  to retrace the author's intentions and original meaning in mind. Instead Barthes asks us to adopt a more text oriented approach that focuses on the interaction of the reader, not the writer, with it. This means that the text is much more open to interpretation, much more fluid in its meaning than previously thought.       

 Referring to the New French Criticism, Barthes observes that Mallarme was “the first to see and foresee in its full extent the necessity to substitute language itself for the person who until then had been supposed to be its owner.” Language supersedes the author. Writing requires impersonality and objectivity. It is the language which ‘acts, performs and not the author.” Mallarme suppresses the author in the interest of writing and thus, restores the place of the reader. Proust too denies the superiority of the author in his work. Linguistics has recently provided the destruction of the author with a valuable analytical tool by showing that the whole of enunciation is an empty process, functioning perfectly without their being any need for it to be filled with the person of the interlocutors. The writer is nobody in writing. It is the language that matters. Brecht distances the author from his work. The test is made and red in such a way that at all its levels the author is absent. The author exists before writing a book, but ceases in exist when it is completed. He or she is the past of his/ her book. Barthes points out that “the author is thought to nourish the book, which is to say that he exists before it, thinks, suffers, lines for it, is in the same relation of antecedence to his work as a father to his child.”

Conclusion:

In modern time the writer has no existence. “He is born simultaneously with the text.” He has no being preceding or exceeding the writing. The reader interprets a work. The author has no place. Barthes concludes “ it is necessary to overthrow the myth, the birth, the reader must be at the cost of the author.”

The Agrarian Revolution in England

Introduction:

The great development in farming that resulted from a series of discoveries and inventions during the 1700s is known as the Agrarian Revolution. This revolution changed not only the landscapes of England but also the lifestyle of its people.

Old System:

Before the revolution, a lot of time and land were wasted. A farmer was forced to allow one-third of his land to lie fallow since the soil would not bear crops continuously. The old strip system, where a farmer’s holding were scattered, forced the farmer to waste a lot of his time walking about from one strip to another. Methods of cultivating had hardly changed since Saxon times. The open field system was in use. This consisted of large open fields with no fences. Each village was surrounded by such fields.

Changes and Developments:

The agrarian revolution brought about primarily some changes and developments:

1.      The Enclosure Acts

2.      Improved methods of growing crops

3.      Improved methods of breeding livestock

4.      Invention of new farm equipment

With the increase in population, there was a pressing need for greater production. The strip system was wasteful but the farmers were disinclined to try out any new methods. The Enclosure Acts were passed and strips of land of thousands of acres were enclosed to make compact fields. There were two kinds of enclosures – enclosure of common land or wasteland and enclosure of the open fields by redistributing the land. The second kind enclosure caused a lot of distress to poor farmers as they did not have proper legal documents to claim their land at the time of redistribution. Some poor farmers were unable to pay the cost of fencing their land and were forced to sell. The age-old system where every householder had his own bit of land disappeared from England. The Enclosure Acts paved the ways for better farming with reduced wastage. But it destroyed a whole way of life. The poor villagers who lost their land were driven to the cities in search of new jobs. This mass exodus of the people brought about the greatest change in English history; by the end of the century, England had changed from a rural to an urban country.

Charles Townshend experimented with crop rotation. He introduced the four-field rotation system in England. He pointed out that by growing turnips along with two kinds of grain and clover, the soil could be enriched. Each crop either added nutrients to the soil or absorbed differed kinds of nutrients. By this method, farmers did not have to leave any part of their land fallow. Another advantage was that fodder was available for the livestock even during winter. This system was used and popularized by an English man named Thomas Coke who also experimented with the idea of enriching the soil with manure.

 The first important inventor of the Agrarian Revolution was Jethro Tull who was a farmer himself, invented a machine to drill holes for sowing seeds. Earlier, sowing was done by scattering which involved a lot of wastage.

 Robert Bakewell was one of the pioneers who experimented with livestock. He experimented with the ‘longhorn’ breed of cattle. He produced improved breeds of cattle, sheep, and horses. He became famous for developing a breed of sheep that could be raised for meat as well as for wool. Earlier, sheep were raised only for wool. Bakewell’s new breed of sheep was called the “Leicester Sheep”

Charles Colling followed Bakewell’s method and succeeded in developing the “shorthorn” breed of cattle which are now famous all over the world. There were others such as George Culley and John Ellman who did pioneering work in cattle rearing and breeding.

 Effects of Agrarian Revolution:

The enclosure system forced even the rich landlords to borrow money to meet fencing costs. Thus, the English banking system developed. It has been mentioned that poor farmers were badly affected by the enclosure system. Earlier, every man had his own bit of land. Now, he lost the land and also the right to graze his animals on wastelands. He either became a paid labourer or went to the city. Although Agrarian Revolution had several advantages such as better production and greater efficiency , in involved a lot of hardship too. This is portrayed by many English writers like Oliver Goldsmith in their writings.