The French Revolution

 

Introduction:

The French Revolution that began in 1789 altered the political landscape of feudal Europe irrevocably. Centuries of oppression came to an end, bringing about great changes in the social and political framework of France. This revolution, which lasted from 1789 to 1799, affected the rest of Europe also. People everywhere were inspired with democratic ideals, and the power of the king and the aristocrats came crumbling down. Nowhere in Europe could royalty and nobility even again take their power for granted after the uprising of the peasants in France.

Causes for the French Revolution:

The changes in the social, economic, political, and intellectual domains were causes for the French Revolution. The aristocratic structure of society before the revolution consisted of three orders or ‘estates’ : the clergy constituted the First Estate; the nobility, the Second Estate and the rest of the population which was more than ninety-five percent belonged to the Third Estate. The nobles represented the wealthy class, the bourgeoisie stood for the intelligent section such as doctors and merchants  and the lowest of the social position was occupied by peasants. While the first two Estates enjoyed privileges such as exempted from paying tax, the Third Estate suffered untold misery and poverty, for they needed to pay taxes to the State, the Church and the nobles. . The Old Order was thus based on privilege, despotism and exploitation.

The court of Louis XVI was known for its extravagance and pomp. The king believed in the divine right theory and ruled in an arbitrary manner. The people had not share in the government and the States-General had not met since 1614. Queen Marie Antoniette was unpopular  and arrogant and irritated the already frustrated people further. There was confusion in very department of administration. There was an urgent need for reform and the king was incapable of it.

Course of the French Revolution:

French writers like Voltaire and Rousseau has a profound effect on the middle class. Voltaire pointed an accusing finger on several lapses in French law which doled out harsh punishment for small offences. His writings helped to awake public conscience in France. In his famous book, “The Social Contract”, Rousseau explained that the king governed a state owing to a contract with his subjects. He established the fact that the people had every right to question the ruler if he failed in his duty towards them. This reasoning inspired many thinkers of the day and they joined the revolution. Motivated by Rousseau they were ready to destroy the old system of government altogether.

The American War of Independence was an inspiration to the French people. The way in which the American rose against the unfair taxation of the British government, and their ultimate triumph, acted as a great stimulus to the oppressed people of France.

All these brought matters to a boiling point, and with the attack on the state prison, the Bastille in 1789, the French Revolution began. The Old Order was overthrown. The French drew up a declaration called the “Declaration of the Rights of Man.” The concept of absolute monarch was rejected. Louis XVI was not happy about these developments and he sought foreign help. This enraged the mob further and it resulted in the horrifying September Massacres.   Thousands of royalties, priests, and nobles were killed on the streets. From 1794 to 1794, there was a Reign of Terror. Louis XVI was beheaded. In the name of ‘liberty, equality and fraternity’ more than  a million people were cruelly butchered. The revolution came to an end in 1799.

Effects of the French Revolution:

The first events of the revolution were well received in England. Many progressive Englishmen were happy to see France emerging from the shadow of absolute monarchy. The government of England was happy to see the weakening of France due to the internal strife. This was the initial reaction in England. But as the revolution took a bloody side with the September Massacres and the Reign of Terror, English opinion altered. The upper classes were alarmed to note the passing of power from the monarch to the lower classes in France. At first they were disgusted by the sadism of the peasants and later this disgust gave way to fear and panic. They feared that a similar situation could be created in England. Burke’s “Reflections on the Revolution in France” sounded a note of terror. In it, he upheld the authority of the ancient institution and claimed that the revolution was a disaster. He also pointed out that if it was not controlled, it would spread all over Europe and ruin its fine civilization. His opinion really changed the minds of the English.  A reply to Burke was made by Tom Paine in his “Rights of Man.” In it he supported the American and French revolutions. He said that people had the right to alter any existing government if they were not satisfied with it. The majority of the people however shared Burkes’ anxiety about the future of Europe.

 

Rise of Napoleon:

Meanwhile Austria and Prussia fought against France but they were defeated by the French. This victory gave the French to spread its power throughout the European continent. They promised assistance to any nation that sought to overthrow its ruler. Reluctantly, England entered into a war with France in 1793. A kind of an emergency situation was created in England. The king and the nobles were panic-stricken and even the mildest suggestion of reform was frowned upon. Outspoken proponents of reform were suspected of being ‘Jacobins.’ (Jacobins were entirely hostile to aristocratic privileges and to all feudal forms of government.)

One famous Jacobin was Napoleon Bonaparte, who wished to make France a democratic republic. After the execution of King Louis XVI in 1793, a group of Jacobins led by Maximilien Robespierre gained control of the French government, when some of the French cities revolted against Robespierre, they were supported by Britain. Napoleon was sent to command the army at Toulon. Napoleon succeeded in driving the British-aided rebels back and gained control over Toulon. Unfortunately, for Napoleon his rapid rise of success suffered a setback with the fall and execution of Robespierre in 1794. He regained his power the following year when he defended the royal palace, the Tuileries, from attack by angry mobs who wanted to destroy the ruling National Conventions that was being held there. He was hailed as a hero and made a major general.

Between 1792 and 1795, France has been at war with several states of Europe. Under the leadership of Napoleon, France defeated Austria in 1797. After several years of civil disturbance, the French longed for peace and welcomed the leadership of Napoleon who controlled the French government in 1799. He no ruled France as a dictator. Several people who held democratic opinions were arrested. The press had no freedom and people should not form club or societies.

Napoleon was not satisfied with ruling France alone. He wanted to conquer the neighbouring countries. He was crowned emperor in 1802 and he began his attacks on Europe by 1905. He defeated Prussia, several German states, Naples, Holland, Warsaw and Tuscany. Britain was forced to enter the war in order to curb the rising power of Napoleon. The war came to an end after the Battle of Waterloo in 1815 when Lord Wellington defeated Napoleon.

Effects of French Revolution in the Lives of the English:

These Napoleonic war affected British life in several ways. England had borrowed heavily to meet the expenses of the war. The first problem therefore was the huge national debt. As a result taxes were raised, food became scarce, and there was inflation all around. After the war came to an end, nearly half a million soldiers and sailors were sent home. They added heavily to the long list of the unemployment. Unemployment became a serious problem for the authorities.

The import of corn was stopped during the twenty years of the war. Soon after the war, this ban was removed and European corn flooded the market. The price of English corn therefore had to be reduced drastically. This was resented by English farmers and to protect them the Corn Law was passed in 1816. The Corn Law hit the poor people for they had to pay more for the corn. The poor started revolting against and so the first Reform Bill was passed. Napoleon Wars gave England an excellent opportunity to revel its real army strength on land and sea to the world. England emerged from these wars as a superpower.

 

The French Revolution stirred the British people and affected their literature in a major way. There was a complete break with the Age of Reason and a new kind of literature known as the Romantic Revival was born. The chief characteristics of the poetry of this period were closeness to nature, simplicity of style, and the employment of the language of the common man. Wordsworth, Coleridge, Byron, Shelley, and Keats were the poets who specialized in this style of poetry.